doubt. Sparc Solaris 2.7 with gcc 2.95.2 in `ABI=32' A shared library build of GMP seems to fail in this combination, it builds but then fails the tests, apparently due to some incorrect data relocations within `gmp_randinit_lc_2exp_size'. The exact cause is unknown, `--disable-shared' is recommended.  File: gmp.info, Node: Performance optimization, Prev: Known Build Problems, Up: Installing GMP 2.6 Performance optimization ============================ For optimal performance, build GMP for the exact CPU type of the target computer, see *Note Build Options::. Unlike what is the case for most other programs, the compiler typically doesn't matter much, since GMP uses assembly language for the most critical operation. In particular for long-running GMP applications, and applications demanding extremely large numbers, building and running the `tuneup' program in the `tune' subdirectory, can be important. For example, cd tune make tuneup ./tuneup will generate better contents for the `gmp-mparam.h' parameter file. To use the results, put the output in the file file indicated in the `Parameters for ...' header. Then recompile from scratch. The `tuneup' program takes one useful parameter, `-f NNN', which instructs the program how long to check FFT multiply parameters. If you're going to use GMP for extremely large numbers, you may want to run `tuneup' with a large NNN value.  File: gmp.info, Node: GMP Basics, Next: Reporting Bugs, Prev: Installing GMP, Up: Top 3 GMP Basics ************ *Using functions, macros, data types, etc. not documented in this manual is strongly discouraged. If you do so your application is guaranteed to be incompatible with future versions of GMP.* * Menu: * Headers and Libraries:: * Nomenclature and Types:: * Function Classes:: * Variable Conventions:: * Parameter Conventions:: * Memory Management:: * Reentrancy:: * Useful Macros and Constants:: * Compatibility with older versions:: * Demonstration Programs:: * Efficiency:: * Debugging:: * Profiling:: * Autoconf:: * Emacs::  File: gmp.info, Node: Headers and Libraries, Next: Nomenclature and Types, Prev: GMP Basics, Up: GMP Basics 3.1 Headers and Libraries ========================= All declarations needed to use GMP are collected in the include file `gmp.h'. It is designed to work with both C and C++ compilers. #include Note however that prototypes for GMP functions with `FILE *' parameters are only provided if `' is included too. #include #include Likewise `' (or `') is required for prototypes with `va_list' parameters, such as `gmp_vprintf'. And `' for prototypes with `struct obstack' parameters, such as `gmp_obstack_printf', when available. All programs using GMP must link against the `libgmp' library. On a typical Unix-like system this can be done with `-lgmp', for example gcc myprogram.c -lgmp GMP C++ functions are in a separate `libgmpxx' library. This is built and installed if C++ support has been enabled (*note Build Options::). For example, g++ mycxxprog.cc -lgmpxx -lgmp GMP is built using Libtool and an application can use that to link if desired, *note GNU Libtool: (libtool)Top. If GMP has been installed to a non-standard location then it may be necessary to use `-I' and `-L' compiler options to point to the right directories, and some sort of run-time path for a shared library.  File: gmp.info, Node: Nomenclature and Types, Next: Function Classes, Prev: Headers and Libraries, Up: GMP Basics 3.2 Nomenclature and Types ========================== In this manual, "integer" usually means a multiple precision integer, as defined by the GMP library. The C data type for such integers is `mpz_t'. Here are some examples of how to declare such integers: mpz_t sum; struct foo { mpz_t x, y; }; mpz_t vec[20]; "Rational number" means a multiple precision fraction. The C data type for these fractions is `mpq_t'. For example: mpq_t quotient; "Floating point number" or "Float" for short, is an arbitrary precision mantissa with a limited precision exponent. The C data type for such objects is `mpf_t'. For example: mpf_t fp; The floating point functions accept and return exponents in the C type `mp_exp_t'. Currently this is usually a `long', but on some systems it's an `int' for efficiency. A "limb" means the part of a multi-precision number that fits in a single machine word. (We chose this word because a limb of the human body is analogous to a digit, only larger, and containing several digits.) Normally a limb is 32 or 64 bits. The C data type for a limb is `mp_limb_t'. Counts of limbs of a multi-precision number represented in the C type `mp_size_t'. Currently this is normally a `long', but on some systems it's an `int' for efficiency, and on some systems it will be `long long' in the future. Counts of bits of a multi-precision number are represented in the C type `mp_bitcnt_t'. Currently this is always an `unsigned long', but on some systems it will be an `unsigned long long' in the future . "Random state" means an algorithm selection and current state data. The C data type for such objects is `gmp_randstate_t'. For example: gmp_randstate_t rstate; Also, in general `mp_bitcnt_t' is used for bit counts and ranges, and `size_t' is used for byte or character counts.  File: gmp.info, Node: Function Classes, Next: Variable Conventions, Prev: Nomenclature and Types, Up: GMP Basics 3.3 Function Classes ==================== There are six classes of functions in the GMP library: 1. Functions for signed integer arithmetic, with names beginning with `mpz_'. The associated type is `mpz_t'. There are about 150 functions in this class. (*note Integer Functions::) 2. Functions for rational number arithmetic, with names beginning with `mpq_'. The associated type is `mpq_t'. There are about 40 functions in this class, but the integer functions can be used for arithmetic on the numerator and denominator separately. (*note Rational Number Functions::) 3. Functions for floating-point arithmetic, with names beginning with `mpf_'. The associated type is `mpf_t'. There are about 60 functions is this class. (*note Floating-point Functions::) 4. Functions compatible with Berkeley MP, such as `itom', `madd', and `mult'. The associated type is `MINT'. (*note BSD Compatible Functions::) 5. Fast low-level functions that operate on natural numbers. These are used by the functions in the preceding groups, and you can also call them directly from very time-critical user programs. These functions' names begin with `mpn_'. The associated type is array of `mp_limb_t'. There are about 30 (hard-to-use) functions in this class. (*note Low-level Functions::) 6. Miscellaneous functions. Functions for setting up custom allocation and functions for generating random numbers. (*note Custom Allocation::, and *note Random Number Functions::)  File: gmp.info, Node: Variable Conventions, Next: Parameter Conventions, Prev: Function Classes, Up: GMP Basics 3.4 Variable Conventions ======================== GMP functions generally have output arguments before input arguments. This notation is by analogy with the assignment operator. The BSD MP compatibility functions are exceptions, having the output arguments last. GMP lets you use the same variable for both input and output in one call. For example, the main function for integer multiplication, `mpz_mul', can be used to square `x' and put the result back in `x' with mpz_mul (x, x, x); Before you can assign to a GMP variable, you need to initialize it by calling one of the special initialization functions. When you're done with a variable, you need to clear it out, using one of the functions for that purpose. Which function to use depends on the type of variable. See the chapters on integer functions, rational number functions, and floating-point functions for details. A variable should only be initialized once, or at least cleared between each initialization. After a variable has been initialized, it may be assigned to any number of times. For efficiency reasons, avoid excessive initializing and clearing. In general, initialize near the start of a function and clear near the end. For example, void foo (void) { mpz_t n; int i; mpz_init (n); for (i = 1; i < 100; i++) { mpz_mul (n, ...); mpz_fdiv_q (n, ...); ... } mpz_clear (n); }  File: gmp.info, Node: Parameter Conventions, Next: Memory Management, Prev: Variable Conventions, Up: GMP Basics 3.5 Parameter Conventions ========================= When a GMP variable is used as a function parameter, it's effectively a call-by-reference, meaning if the function stores a value there it will change the original in the caller. Parameters which are input-only can be designated `const' to provoke a compiler error or warning on attempting to modify them. When a function is going to return a GMP result, it should designate a parameter that it sets, like the library functions do. More than one value can be returned by having more than one output parameter, again like the library functions. A `return' of an `mpz_t' etc doesn't return the object, only a pointer, and this is almost certainly not what's wanted. Here's an example accepting an `mpz_t' parameter, doing a calculation, and storing the result to the indicated parameter. void foo (mpz_t result, const mpz_t param, unsigned long n) { unsigned long i; mpz_mul_ui (result, param, n); for (i = 1; i < n; i++) mpz_add_ui (result, result, i*7); } int main (void) { mpz_t r, n; mpz_init (r); mpz_init_set_str (n, "123456", 0); foo (r, n, 20L); gmp_printf ("%Zd\n", r); return 0; } `foo' works even if the mainline passes the same variable for `param' and `result', just like the library functions. But sometimes it's tricky to make that work, and an application might not want to bother supporting that sort of thing. For interest, the GMP types `mpz_t' etc are implemented as one-element arrays of certain structures. This is why declaring a variable creates an object with the fields GMP needs, but then using it as a parameter passes a pointer to the object. Note that the actual fields in each `mpz_t' etc are for internal use only and should not be accessed directly by code that expects to be compatible with future GMP releases.  File: gmp.info, Node: Memory Management, Next: Reentrancy, Prev: Parameter Conventions, Up: GMP Basics 3.6 Memory Management ===================== The GMP types like `mpz_t' are small, containing only a couple of sizes, and pointers to allocated data. Once a variable is initialized, GMP takes care of all space allocation. Additional space is allocated whenever a variable doesn't have enough. `mpz_t' and `mpq_t' variables never reduce their allocated space. Normally this is the best policy, since it avoids frequent reallocation. Applications that need to return memory to the heap at some particular point can use `mpz_realloc2', or clear variables no longer needed. `mpf_t' variables, in the current implementation, use a fixed amount of space, determined by the chosen precision and allocated at initialization, so their size doesn't change. All memory is allocated using `malloc' and friends by default, but this can be changed, see *Note Custom Allocation::. Temporary memory on the stack is also used (via `alloca'), but this can be changed at build-time if desired, see *Note Build Options::.  File: gmp.info, Node: Reentrancy, Next: Useful Macros and Constants, Prev: Memory Management, Up: GMP Basics 3.7 Reentrancy ============== GMP is reentrant and thread-safe, with some exceptions: * If configured with `--enable-alloca=malloc-notreentrant' (or with `--enable-alloca=notreentrant' when `alloca' is not available), then naturally GMP is not reentrant. * `mpf_set_default_prec' and `mpf_init' use a global variable for the selected precision. `mpf_init2' can be used instead, and in the C++ interface an explicit precision to the `mpf_class' constructor. * `mpz_random' and the other old random number functions use a global random state and are hence not reentrant. The newer random number functions that accept a `gmp_randstate_t' parameter can be used instead. * `gmp_randinit' (obsolete) returns an error indication through a global variable, which is not thread safe. Applications are advised to use `gmp_randinit_default' or `gmp_randinit_lc_2exp' instead. * `mp_set_memory_functions' uses global variables to store the selected memory allocation functions. * If the memory allocation functions set by a call to `mp_set_memory_functions' (or `malloc' and friends by default) are not reentrant, then GMP will not be reentrant either. * If the standard I/O functions such as `fwrite' are not reentrant then the GMP I/O functions using them will not be reentrant either. * It's safe for two threads to read from the same GMP variable simultaneously, but it's not safe for one to read while the another might be writing, nor for two threads to write simultaneously. It's not safe for two threads to generate a random number from the same `gmp_randstate_t' simultaneously, since this involves an update of that variable.  File: gmp.info, Node: Useful Macros and Constants, Next: Compatibility with older versions, Prev: Reentrancy, Up: GMP Basics 3.8 Useful Macros and Constants =============================== -- Global Constant: const int mp_bits_per_limb The number of bits per limb. -- Macro: __GNU_MP_VERSION -- Macro: __GNU_MP_VERSION_MINOR -- Macro: __GNU_MP_VERSION_PATCHLEVEL The major and minor GMP version, and patch level, respectively, as integers. For GMP i.j, these numbers will be i, j, and 0, respectively. For GMP i.j.k, these numbers will be i, j, and k, respectively. -- Global Constant: const char * const gmp_version The GMP version number, as a null-terminated string, in the form "i.j.k". This release is "5.0.1". Note that the format "i.j" was used when k was zero was used before version 4.3.0. -- Macro: __GMP_CC -- Macro: __GMP_CFLAGS The compiler and compiler flags, respectively, used when compiling GMP, as strings.  File: gmp.info, Node: Compatibility with older versions, Next: Demonstration Programs, Prev: Useful Macros and Constants, Up: GMP Basics 3.9 Compatibility with older versions ===================================== This version of GMP is upwardly binary compatible with all 4.x and 3.x versions, and upwardly compatible at the source level with all 2.x versions, with the following exceptions. * `mpn_gcd' had its source arguments swapped as of GMP 3.0, for consistency with other `mpn' functions. * `mpf_get_prec' counted precision slightly differently in GMP 3.0 and 3.0.1, but in 3.1 reverted to the 2.x style. There are a number of compatibility issues between GMP 1 and GMP 2 that of course also apply when porting applications from GMP 1 to GMP 4. Please see the GMP 2 manual for details. The Berkeley MP compatibility library (*note BSD Compatible Functions::) is source and binary compatible with the standard `libmp'.  File: gmp.info, Node: Demonstration Programs, Next: Efficiency, Prev: Compatibility with older versions, Up: GMP Basics 3.10 Demonstration programs =========================== The `demos' subdirectory has some sample programs using GMP. These aren't built or installed, but there's a `Makefile' with rules for them. For instance, make pexpr ./pexpr 68^975+10 The following programs are provided * `pexpr' is an expression evaluator, the program used on the GMP web page. * The `calc' subdirectory has a similar but simpler evaluator using `lex' and `yacc'. * The `expr' subdirectory is yet another expression evaluator, a library designed for ease of use within a C program. See `demos/expr/README' for more information. * `factorize' is a Pollard-Rho factorization program. * `isprime' is a command-line interface to the `mpz_probab_prime_p' function. * `primes' counts or lists primes in an interval, using a sieve. * `qcn' is an example use of `mpz_kronecker_ui' to estimate quadratic class numbers. * The `perl' subdirectory is a comprehensive perl interface to GMP. See `demos/perl/INSTALL' for more information. Documentation is in POD format in `demos/perl/GMP.pm'. As an aside, consideration has been given at various times to some sort of expression evaluation within the main GMP library. Going beyond something minimal quickly leads to matters like user-defined functions, looping, fixnums for control variables, etc, which are considered outside the scope of GMP (much closer to language interpreters or compilers, *Note Language Bindings::.) Something simple for program input convenience may yet be a possibility, a combination of the `expr' demo and the `pexpr' tree back-end perhaps. But for now the above evaluators are offered as illustrations.  File: gmp.info, Node: Efficiency, Next: Debugging, Prev: Demonstration Programs, Up: GMP Basics 3.11 Efficiency =============== Small Operands On small operands, the time for function call overheads and memory allocation can be significant in comparison to actual calculation. This is unavoidable in a general purpose variable precision library, although GMP attempts to be as efficient as it can on both large and small operands. Static Linking On some CPUs, in particular the x86s, the static `libgmp.a' should be used for maximum speed, since the PIC code in the shared `libgmp.so' will have a small overhead on each function call and global data address. For many programs this will be insignificant, but for long calculations there's a gain to be had. Initializing and Clearing Avoid excessive initializing and clearing of variables, since this can be quite time consuming, especially in comparison to otherwise fast operations like addition. A language interpreter might want to keep a free list or stack of initialized variables ready for use. It should be possible to integrate something like that with a garbage collector too. Reallocations An `mpz_t' or `mpq_t' variable used to hold successively increasing values will have its memory repeatedly `realloc'ed, which could be quite slow or could fragment memory, depending on the C library. If an application can estimate the final size then `mpz_init2' or `mpz_realloc2' can be called to allocate the necessary space from the beginning (*note Initializing Integers::). It doesn't matter if a size set with `mpz_init2' or `mpz_realloc2' is too small, since all functions will do a further reallocation if necessary. Badly overestimating memory required will waste space though. `2exp' Functions It's up to an application to call functions like `mpz_mul_2exp' when appropriate. General purpose functions like `mpz_mul' make no attempt to identify powers of two or other special forms, because such inputs will usually be very rare and testing every time would be wasteful. `ui' and `si' Functions The `ui' functions and the small number of `si' functions exist for convenience and should be used where applicable. But if for example an `mpz_t' contains a value that fits in an `unsigned long' there's no need extract it and call a `ui' function, just use the regular `mpz' function. In-Place Operations `mpz_abs', `mpq_abs', `mpf_abs', `mpz_neg', `mpq_neg' and `mpf_neg' are fast when used for in-place operations like `mpz_abs(x,x)', since in the current implementation only a single field of `x' needs changing. On suitable compilers (GCC for instance) this is inlined too. `mpz_add_ui', `mpz_sub_ui', `mpf_add_ui' and `mpf_sub_ui' benefit from an in-place operation like `mpz_add_ui(x,x,y)', since usually only one or two limbs of `x' will need to be changed. The same applies to the full precision `mpz_add' etc if `y' is small. If `y' is big then cache locality may be helped, but that's all. `mpz_mul' is currently the opposite, a separate destination is slightly better. A call like `mpz_mul(x,x,y)' will, unless `y' is only one limb, make a temporary copy of `x' before forming the result. Normally that copying will only be a tiny fraction of the time for the multiply, so this is not a particularly important consideration. `mpz_set', `mpq_set', `mpq_set_num', `mpf_set', etc, make no attempt to recognise a copy of something to itself, so a call like `mpz_set(x,x)' will be wasteful. Naturally that would never be written deliberately, but if it might arise from two pointers to the same object then a test to avoid it might be desirable. if (x != y) mpz_set (x, y); Note that it's never worth introducing extra `mpz_set' calls just to get in-place operations. If a result should go to a particular variable then just direct it there and let GMP take care of data movement. Divisibility Testing (Small Integers) `mpz_divisible_ui_p' and `mpz_congruent_ui_p' are the best functions for testing whether an `mpz_t' is divisible by an individual small integer. They use an algorithm which is faster than `mpz_tdiv_ui', but which gives no useful information about the actual remainder, only whether it's zero (or a particular value). However when testing divisibility by several small integers, it's best to take a remainder modulo their product, to save multi-precision operations. For instance to test whether a number is divisible by any of 23, 29 or 31 take a remainder modulo 23*29*31 = 20677 and then test that. The division functions like `mpz_tdiv_q_ui' which give a quotient as well as a remainder are generally a little slower than the remainder-only functions like `mpz_tdiv_ui'. If the quotient is only rarely wanted then it's probably best to just take a remainder and then go back and calculate the quotient if and when it's wanted (`mpz_divexact_ui' can be used if the remainder is zero). Rational Arithmetic The `mpq' functions operate on `mpq_t' values with no common factors in the numerator and denominator. Common factors are checked-for and cast out as necessary. In general, cancelling factors every time is the best approach since it minimizes the sizes for subsequent operations. However, applications that know something about the factorization of the values they're working with might be able to avoid some of the GCDs used for canonicalization, or swap them for divisions. For example when multiplying by a prime it's enough to check for factors of it in the denominator instead of doing a full GCD. Or when forming a big product it might be known that very little cancellation will be possible, and so canonicalization can be left to the end. The `mpq_numref' and `mpq_denref' macros give access to the numerator and denominator to do things outside the scope of the supplied `mpq' functions. *Note Applying Integer Functions::. The canonical form for rationals allows mixed-type `mpq_t' and integer additions or subtractions to be done directly with multiples of the denominator. This will be somewhat faster than `mpq_add'. For example, /* mpq increment */ mpz_add (mpq_numref(q), mpq_numref(q), mpq_denref(q)); /* mpq += unsigned long */ mpz_addmul_ui (mpq_numref(q), mpq_denref(q), 123UL); /* mpq -= mpz */ mpz_submul (mpq_numref(q), mpq_denref(q), z); Number Sequences Functions like `mpz_fac_ui', `mpz_fib_ui' and `mpz_bin_uiui' are designed for calculating isolated values. If a range of values is wanted it's probably best to call to get a starting point and iterate from there. Text Input/Output Hexadecimal or octal are suggested for input or output in text form. Power-of-2 bases like these can be converted much more efficiently than other bases, like decimal. For big numbers there's usually nothing of particular interest to be seen in the digits, so the base doesn't matter much. Maybe we can hope octal will one day become the normal base for everyday use, as proposed by King Charles XII of Sweden and later reformers.  File: gmp.info, Node: Debugging, Next: Profiling, Prev: Efficiency, Up: GMP Basics 3.12 Debugging ============== Stack Overflow Depending on the system, a segmentation violation or bus error might be the only indication of stack overflow. See `--enable-alloca' choices in *Note Build Options::, for how to address this. In new enough versions of GCC, `-fstack-check' may be able to ensure an overflow is recognised by the system before too much damage is done, or `-fstack-limit-symbol' or `-fstack-limit-register' may be able to add checking if the system itself doesn't do any (*note Options for Code Generation: (gcc)Code Gen Options.). These options must be added to the `CFLAGS' used in the GMP build (*note Build Options::), adding them just to an application will have no effect. Note also they're a slowdown, adding overhead to each function call and each stack allocation. Heap Problems The most likely cause of application problems with GMP is heap corruption. Failing to `init' GMP variables will have unpredictable effects, and corruption arising elsewhere in a program may well affect GMP. Initializing GMP variables more than once or failing to clear them will cause memory leaks. In all such cases a `malloc' debugger is recommended. On a GNU or BSD system the standard C library `malloc' has some diagnostic facilities, see *Note Allocation Debugging: (libc)Allocation Debugging, or `man 3 malloc'. Other possibilities, in no particular order, include `http://www.inf.ethz.ch/personal/biere/projects/ccmalloc/' `http://dmalloc.com/' `http://www.perens.com/FreeSoftware/' (electric fence) `http://packages.debian.org/stable/devel/fda' `http://www.gnupdate.org/components/leakbug/' `http://people.redhat.com/~otaylor/memprof/' `http://www.cbmamiga.demon.co.uk/mpatrol/' The GMP default allocation routines in `memory.c' also have a simple sentinel scheme which can be enabled with `#define DEBUG' in that file. This is mainly designed for detecting buffer overruns during GMP development, but might find other uses. Stack Backtraces On some systems the compiler options GMP uses by default can interfere with debugging. In particular on x86 and 68k systems `-fomit-frame-pointer' is used and this generally inhibits stack backtracing. Recompiling without such options may help while debugging, though the usual caveats about it potentially moving a memory problem or hiding a compiler bug will apply. GDB, the GNU Debugger A sample `.gdbinit' is included in the distribution, showing how to call some undocumented dump functions to print GMP variables from within GDB. Note that these functions shouldn't be used in final application code since they're undocumented and may be subject to incompatible changes in future versions of GMP. Source File Paths GMP has multiple source files with the same name, in different directories. For example `mpz', `mpq' and `mpf' each have an `init.c'. If the debugger can't already determine the right one it may help to build with absolute paths on each C file. One way to do that is to use a separate object directory with an absolute path to the source directory. cd /my/build/dir /my/source/dir/gmp-5.0.1/configure This works via `VPATH', and might require GNU `make'. Alternately it might be possible to change the `.c.lo' rules appropriately. Assertion Checking The build option `--enable-assert' is available to add some consistency checks to the library (see *Note Build Options::). These are likely to be of limited value to most applications. Assertion failures are just as likely to indicate memory corruption as a library or compiler bug. Applications using the low-level `mpn' functions, however, will benefit from `--enable-assert' since it adds checks on the parameters of most such functions, many of which have subtle restrictions on their usage. Note however that only the generic C code has checks, not the assembly code, so CPU `none' should be used for maximum checking. Temporary Memory Checking The build option `--enable-alloca=debug' arranges that each block of temporary memory in GMP is allocated with a separate call to `malloc' (or the allocation function set with `mp_set_memory_functions'). This can help a malloc debugger detect accesses outside the intended bounds, or detect memory not released. In a normal build, on the other hand, temporary memory is allocated in blocks which GMP divides up for its own use, or may be allocated with a compiler builtin `alloca' which will go nowhere near any malloc debugger hooks. Maximum Debuggability To summarize the above, a GMP build for maximum debuggability would be ./configure --disable-shared --enable-assert \ --enable-alloca=debug --host=none CFLAGS=-g For C++, add `--enable-cxx CXXFLAGS=-g'. Checker The GCC checker (`http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/checker/') can be used with GMP. It contains a stub library which means GMP applications compiled with checker can use a normal GMP build. A build of GMP with checking within GMP itself can be made. This will run very very slowly. On GNU/Linux for example, ./configure --host=none-pc-linux-gnu CC=checkergcc `--host=none' must be used, since the GMP assembly code doesn't support the checking scheme. The GMP C++ features cannot be used, since current versions of checker (0.9.9.1) don't yet support the standard C++ library. Valgrind The valgrind program (`http://valgrind.org/') is a memory checker for x86s. It translates and emulates machine instructions to do strong checks for uninitialized data (at the level of individual bits), memory accesses through bad pointers, and memory leaks. Recent versions of Valgrind are getting support for MMX and SSE/SSE2 instructions, for past versions GMP will need to be configured not to use those, ie. for an x86 without them (for instance plain `i486'). Other Problems Any suspected bug in GMP itself should be isolated to make sure it's not an application problem, see *Note Reporting Bugs::.  File: gmp.info, Node: Profiling, Next: Autoconf, Prev: Debugging, Up: GMP Basics 3.13 Profiling ============== Running a program under a profiler is a good way to find where it's spending most time and where improvements can be best sought. The profiling choices for a GMP build are as follows. `--disable-profiling' The default is to add nothing special for profiling. It should be possible to just compile the mainline of a program with `-p' and use `prof' to get a profile consisting of timer-based sampling of the program counter. Most of the GMP assembly code has the necessary symbol information. This approach has the advantage of minimizing interference with normal program operation, but on most systems the resolution of the sampling is quite low (10 milliseconds for instance), requiring long runs to get accurate information. `--enable-profiling=prof' Build with support for the system `prof', which means `-p' added to the `CFLAGS'. This provides call counting in addition to program counter sampling, which allows the most frequently called routines to be identified, and an average time spent in each routine to be determined. The x86 assembly code has support for this option, but on other processors the assembly routines will be as if compiled without `-p' and therefore won't appear in the call counts. On some systems, such as GNU/Linux, `-p' in fact means `-pg' and in this case `--enable-profiling=gprof' described below should be used instead. `--enable-profiling=gprof' Build with support for `gprof', which means `-pg' added to the `CFLAGS'. This provides call graph construction in addition to call counting and program counter sampling, which makes it possible to count calls coming from different locations. For example the number of calls to `mpn_mul' from `mpz_mul' versus the number from `mpf_mul'. The program counter sampling is still flat though, so only a total time in `mpn_mul' would be accumulated, not a separate amount for each call site. The x86 assembly code has support for this option, but on other processors the assembly routines will be as if compiled without `-pg' and therefore not be included in the call counts. On x86 and m68k systems `-pg' and `-fomit-frame-pointer' are incompatible, so the latter is omitted from the default flags in that case, which might result in poorer code generation. Incidentally, it should be possible to use the `gprof' program with a plain `--enable-profiling=prof' build. But in that case only the `gprof -p' flat profile and call counts can be expected to be valid, not the `gprof -q' call graph. `--enable-profiling=instrument' Build with the GCC option `-finstrument-functions' added to the `CFLAGS' (*note Options for Code Generation: (gcc)Code Gen Options.). This inserts special instrumenting calls at the start and end of each function, allowing exact timing and full call graph construction. This instrumenting is not normally a standard system feature and will require support from an external library, such as `http://sourceforge.net/projects/fnccheck/' This should be included in `LIBS' during the GMP configure so that test programs will link. For example, ./configure --enable-profiling=instrument LIBS=-lfc On a GNU system the C library provides dummy instrumenting functions, so programs compiled with this option will link. In this case it's only necessary to ensure the correct library is added when linking an application. The x86 assembly code supports this option, but on other processors the assembly routines will be as if compiled without `-finstrument-functions' meaning time spent in them will effectively be attributed to their caller.  File: gmp.info, Node: Autoconf, Next: Emacs, Prev: Profiling, Up: GMP Basics 3.14 Autoconf ============= Autoconf based applications can easily check whether GMP is installed. The only thing to be noted is that GMP library symbols from version 3 onwards have prefixes like `__gmpz'. The following therefore would be a simple test, AC_CHECK_LIB(gmp, __gmpz_init) This just uses the default `AC_CHECK_LIB' actions for found or not found, but an application that must have GMP would want to generate an error if not found. For example, AC_CHECK_LIB(gmp, __gmpz_init, , [AC_MSG_ERROR([GNU MP not found, see http://gmplib.org/])]) If functions added in some particular version of GMP are required, then one of those can be used when checking. For example `mpz_mul_si' was added in GMP 3.1, AC_CHECK_LIB(gmp, __gmpz_mul_si, , [AC_MSG_ERROR( [GNU MP not found, or not 3.1 or up, see http://gmplib.org/])]) An alternative would be to test the version number in `gmp.h' using say `AC_EGREP_CPP'. That would make it possible to test the exact version, if some particular sub-minor release is known to be necessary. In general it's recommended that applications should simply demand a new enough GMP rather than trying to provide supplements for features not available in past versions. Occasionally an application will need or want to know the size of a type at configuration or preprocessing time, not just with `sizeof' in the code. This can be done in the normal way with `mp_limb_t' etc, but GMP 4.0 or up is best for this, since prior versions needed certain `-D' defines on systems using a `long long' limb. The following would suit Autoconf 2.50 or up, AC_CHECK_SIZEOF(mp_limb_t, , [#include ])  File: gmp.info, Node: Emacs, Prev: Autoconf, Up: GMP Basics 3.15 Emacs ========== (`info-lookup-symbol') is a good way to find documentation on C functions while editing (*note Info Documentation Lookup: (emacs)Info Lookup.). The GMP manual can be included in such lookups by putting the following in your `.emacs', (eval-after-load "info-look" '(let ((mode-value (assoc 'c-mode (assoc 'symbol info-lookup-alist)))) (setcar (nthcdr 3 mode-value) (cons '("(gmp)Function Index" nil "^ -.* " "\\>") (nth 3 mode-value)))))  File: gmp.info, Node: Reporting Bugs, Next: Integer Functions, Prev: GMP Basics, Up: Top 4 Reporting Bugs **************** If you think you have found a bug in the GMP library, please investigate it and report it. We have made this library available to you, and it is not too much to ask you to report the bugs you find. Before you report a bug, check it's not already addressed in *Note Known Build Problems::, or perhaps *Note Notes for Particular Systems::. You may also want to check `http://gmplib.org/' for patches for this release. Please include the following in any report, * The GMP version number, and if pre-packaged or patched then say so. * A test program that makes it possible for us to reproduce the bug. Include instructions on how to run the program. * A description of what is wrong. If the results are incorrect, in what way. If you get a crash, say so. * If you get a crash, include a stack backtrace from the debugger if it's informative (`where' in `gdb', or `$C' in `adb'). * Please do not send core dumps, executables or `strace's. * The configuration options you used when building GMP, if any. * The name of the compiler and its version. For `gcc', get the version with `gcc -v', otherwise perhaps `what `which cc`', or similar. * The output from running `uname -a'. * The output from running `./config.guess', and from running `./configfsf.guess' (might be the same). * If the bug is related to `configure', then the compressed contents of `config.log'. * If the bug is related to an `asm' file not assembling, then the contents of `config.m4' and the offending line or lines from the temporary `mpn/tmp-.s'. Please make an effort to produce a self-contained report, with something definite that can be tested or debugged. Vague queries or piecemeal messages are difficult to act on and don't help the development effort. It is not uncommon that an observed problem is actually due to a bug in the compiler; the GMP code tends to explore interesting corners in compilers. If your bug report is good, we will do our best to help you get a corrected version of the library; if the bug report is poor, we won't do anything about it (except maybe ask you to send a better report). Send your report to: . If you think something in this manual is unclear, or downright incorrect, or if the language needs to be improved, please send a note to the same address.  File: gmp.info, Node: Integer Functions, Next: Rational Number Functions, Prev: Reporting Bugs, Up: Top 5 Integer Functions ******************* This chapter describes the GMP functions for performing integer arithmetic. These functions start with the prefix `mpz_'. GMP integers are stored in objects of type `mpz_t'. * Menu: * Initializing Integers:: * Assigning Integers:: * Simultaneous Integer Init & Assign:: * Converting Integers:: * Integer Arithmetic:: * Integer Division:: * Integer Exponentiation:: * Integer Roots:: * Number Theoretic Functions:: * Integer Comparisons:: * Integer Logic and Bit Fiddling:: * I/O of Integers:: * Integer Random Numbers:: * Integer Import and Export:: * Miscellaneous Integer Functions:: * Integer Special Functions::  File: gmp.info, Node: Initializing Integers, Next: Assigning Integers, Prev: Integer Functions, Up: Integer Functions 5.1 Initialization Functions ============================ The functions for integer arithmetic assume that all integer objects are initialized. You do that by calling the function `mpz_init'. For example, { mpz_t integ; mpz_init (integ); ... mpz_add (integ, ...); ... mpz_sub (integ, ...); /* Unless the program is about to exit, do ... */ mpz_clear (integ); } As you can see, you can store new values any number of times, once an object is initialized. -- Function: void mpz_init (mpz_t X) Initialize X, and set its value to 0. -- Function: void mpz_inits (mpz_t X, ...) Initialize a NULL-terminated list of `mpz_t' variables, and set their values to 0. -- Function: void mpz_init2 (mpz_t X, mp_bitcnt_t N) Initialize X, with space for N-bit numbers, and set its value to 0. Calling this function instead of `mpz_init' or `mpz_inits' is never necessary; reallocation is handled automatically by GMP when needed. N is only the initial space, X will grow automatically in the normal way, if necessary, for subsequent values stored. `mpz_init2' makes it possible to avoid such reallocations if a maximum size is known in advance. -- Function: void mpz_clear (mpz_t X) Free the space occupied by X. Call this function for all `mpz_t' variables when you are done with them. -- Function: void mpz_clears (mpz_t X, ...) Free the space occupied by a NULL-terminated list of `mpz_t' variables. -- Function: void mpz_realloc2 (mpz_t X, mp_bitcnt_t N) Change the space allocated for X to N bits. The value in X is preserved if it fits, or is set to 0 if not. Calling this function is never necessary; reallocation is handled automatically by GMP when needed. But this function can be used to increase the space for a variable in order to avoid repeated automatic reallocations, or to decrease it to give memory back to the heap.  File: gmp.info, Node: Assigning Integers, Next: Simultaneous Integer Init & Assign, Prev: Initializing Integers, Up: Integer Functions 5.2 Assignment Functions ======================== These functions assign new values to already initialized integers (*note Initializing Integers::). -- Function: void mpz_set (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP) -- Function: void mpz_set_ui (mpz_t ROP, unsigned long int OP) -- Function: void mpz_set_si (mpz_t ROP, signed long int OP) -- Function: void mpz_set_d (mpz_t ROP, double OP) -- Function: void mpz_set_q (mpz_t ROP, mpq_t OP) -- Function: void mpz_set_f (mpz_t ROP, mpf_t OP) Set the value of ROP from OP. `mpz_set_d', `mpz_set_q' and `mpz_set_f' truncate OP to make it an integer. -- Function: int mpz_set_str (mpz_t ROP, char *STR, int BASE) Set the value of ROP from STR, a null-terminated C string in base BASE. White space is allowed in the string, and is simply ignored. The BASE may vary from 2 to 62, or if BASE is 0, then the leading characters are used: `0x' and `0X' for hexadecimal, `0b' and `0B' for binary, `0' for octal, or decimal otherwise. For bases up to 36, case is ignored; upper-case and lower-case letters have the same value. For bases 37 to 62, upper-case letter represent the usual 10..35 while lower-case letter represent 36..61. This function returns 0 if the entire string is a valid number in base BASE. Otherwise it returns -1. -- Function: void mpz_swap (mpz_t ROP1, mpz_t ROP2) Swap the values ROP1 and ROP2 efficiently.  File: gmp.info, Node: Simultaneous Integer Init & Assign, Next: Converting Integers, Prev: Assigning Integers, Up: Integer Functions 5.3 Combined Initialization and Assignment Functions ==================================================== For convenience, GMP provides a parallel series of initialize-and-set functions which initialize the output and then store the value there. These functions' names have the form `mpz_init_set...' Here is an example of using one: { mpz_t pie; mpz_init_set_str (pie, "3141592653589793238462643383279502884", 10); ... mpz_sub (pie, ...); ... mpz_clear (pie); } Once the integer has been initialized by any of the `mpz_init_set...' functions, it can be used as the source or destination operand for the ordinary integer functions. Don't use an initialize-and-set function on a variable already initialized! -- Function: void mpz_init_set (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP) -- Function: void mpz_init_set_ui (mpz_t ROP, unsigned long int OP) -- Function: void mpz_init_set_si (mpz_t ROP, signed long int OP) -- Function: void mpz_init_set_d (mpz_t ROP, double OP) Initialize ROP with limb space and set the initial numeric value from OP. -- Function: int mpz_init_set_str (mpz_t ROP, char *STR, int BASE) Initialize ROP and set its value like `mpz_set_str' (see its documentation above for details). If the string is a correct base BASE number, the function returns 0; if an error occurs it returns -1. ROP is initialized even if an error occurs. (I.e., you have to call `mpz_clear' for it.)  File: gmp.info, Node: Converting Integers, Next: Integer Arithmetic, Prev: Simultaneous Integer Init & Assign, Up: Integer Functions 5.4 Conversion Functions ======================== This section describes functions for converting GMP integers to standard C types. Functions for converting _to_ GMP integers are described in *Note Assigning Integers:: and *Note I/O of Integers::. -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_get_ui (mpz_t OP) Return the value of OP as an `unsigned long'. If OP is too big to fit an `unsigned long' then just the least significant bits that do fit are returned. The sign of OP is ignored, only the absolute value is used. -- Function: signed long int mpz_get_si (mpz_t OP) If OP fits into a `signed long int' return the value of OP. Otherwise return the least significant part of OP, with the same sign as OP. If OP is too big to fit in a `signed long int', the returned result is probably not very useful. To find out if the value will fit, use the function `mpz_fits_slong_p'. -- Function: double mpz_get_d (mpz_t OP) Convert OP to a `double', truncating if necessary (ie. rounding towards zero). If the exponent from the conversion is too big, the result is system dependent. An infinity is returned where available. A hardware overflow trap may or may not occur. -- Function: double mpz_get_d_2exp (signed long int *EXP, mpz_t OP) Convert OP to a `double', truncating if necessary (ie. rounding towards zero), and returning the exponent separately. The return value is in the range 0.5<=abs(D)<1 and the exponent is stored to `*EXP'. D * 2^EXP is the (truncated) OP value. If OP is zero, the return is 0.0 and 0 is stored to `*EXP'. This is similar to the standard C `frexp' function (*note Normalization Functions: (libc)Normalization Functions.). -- Function: char * mpz_get_str (char *STR, int BASE, mpz_t OP) Convert OP to a string of digits in base BASE. The base argument may vary from 2 to 62 or from -2 to -36. For BASE in the range 2..36, digits and lower-case letters are used; for -2..-36, digits and upper-case letters are used; for 37..62, digits, upper-case letters, and lower-case letters (in that significance order) are used. If STR is `NULL', the result string is allocated using the current allocation function (*note Custom Allocation::). The block will be `strlen(str)+1' bytes, that being exactly enough for the string and null-terminator. If STR is not `NULL', it should point to a block of storage large enough for the result, that being `mpz_sizeinbase (OP, BASE) + 2'. The two extra bytes are for a possible minus sign, and the null-terminator. A pointer to the result string is returned, being either the allocated block, or the given STR.  File: gmp.info, Node: Integer Arithmetic, Next: Integer Division, Prev: Converting Integers, Up: Integer Functions 5.5 Arithmetic Functions ======================== -- Function: void mpz_add (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) -- Function: void mpz_add_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long int OP2) Set ROP to OP1 + OP2. -- Function: void mpz_sub (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) -- Function: void mpz_sub_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long int OP2) -- Function: void mpz_ui_sub (mpz_t ROP, unsigned long int OP1, mpz_t OP2) Set ROP to OP1 - OP2. -- Function: void mpz_mul (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) -- Function: void mpz_mul_si (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, long int OP2) -- Function: void mpz_mul_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long int OP2) Set ROP to OP1 times OP2. -- Function: void mpz_addmul (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) -- Function: void mpz_addmul_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long int OP2) Set ROP to ROP + OP1 times OP2. -- Function: void mpz_submul (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) -- Function: void mpz_submul_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long int OP2) Set ROP to ROP - OP1 times OP2. -- Function: void mpz_mul_2exp (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mp_bitcnt_t OP2) Set ROP to OP1 times 2 raised to OP2. This operation can also be defined as a left shift by OP2 bits. -- Function: void mpz_neg (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP) Set ROP to -OP. -- Function: void mpz_abs (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP) Set ROP to the absolute value of OP.  File: gmp.info, Node: Integer Division, Next: Integer Exponentiation, Prev: Integer Arithmetic, Up: Integer Functions 5.6 Division Functions ====================== Division is undefined if the divisor is zero. Passing a zero divisor to the division or modulo functions (including the modular powering functions `mpz_powm' and `mpz_powm_ui'), will cause an intentional division by zero. This lets a program handle arithmetic exceptions in these functions the same way as for normal C `int' arithmetic. -- Function: void mpz_cdiv_q (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: void mpz_cdiv_r (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: void mpz_cdiv_qr (mpz_t Q, mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_cdiv_q_ui (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_cdiv_r_ui (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_cdiv_qr_ui (mpz_t Q, mpz_t R, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_cdiv_ui (mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: void mpz_cdiv_q_2exp (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, mp_bitcnt_t B) -- Function: void mpz_cdiv_r_2exp (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mp_bitcnt_t B) -- Function: void mpz_fdiv_q (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: void mpz_fdiv_r (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: void mpz_fdiv_qr (mpz_t Q, mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_fdiv_q_ui (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_fdiv_r_ui (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_fdiv_qr_ui (mpz_t Q, mpz_t R, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_fdiv_ui (mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: void mpz_fdiv_q_2exp (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, mp_bitcnt_t B) -- Function: void mpz_fdiv_r_2exp (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mp_bitcnt_t B) -- Function: void mpz_tdiv_q (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: void mpz_tdiv_r (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: void mpz_tdiv_qr (mpz_t Q, mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mpz_t D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_tdiv_q_ui (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_tdiv_r_ui (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_tdiv_qr_ui (mpz_t Q, mpz_t R, mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_tdiv_ui (mpz_t N, unsigned long int D) -- Function: void mpz_tdiv_q_2exp (mpz_t Q, mpz_t N, mp_bitcnt_t B) -- Function: void mpz_tdiv_r_2exp (mpz_t R, mpz_t N, mp_bitcnt_t B) Divide N by D, forming a quotient Q and/or remainder R. For the `2exp' functions, D=2^B. The rounding is in three styles, each suiting different applications. * `cdiv' rounds Q up towards +infinity, and R will have the opposite sign to D. The `c' stands for "ceil". * `fdiv' rounds Q down towards -infinity, and R will have the same sign as D. The `f' stands for "floor". * `tdiv' rounds Q towards zero, and R will have the same sign as N. The `t' stands for "truncate". In all cases Q and R will satisfy N=Q*D+R, and R will satisfy 0<=abs(R) 0 and that MOD is odd. This function is designed to take the same time and have the same cache access patterns for any two same-size arguments, assuming that function arguments are placed at the same position and that the machine state is identical upon function entry. This function is intended for cryptographic purposes, where resilience to side-channel attacks is desired. -- Function: void mpz_pow_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t BASE, unsigned long int EXP) -- Function: void mpz_ui_pow_ui (mpz_t ROP, unsigned long int BASE, unsigned long int EXP) Set ROP to BASE raised to EXP. The case 0^0 yields 1.  File: gmp.info, Node: Integer Roots, Next: Number Theoretic Functions, Prev: Integer Exponentiation, Up: Integer Functions 5.8 Root Extraction Functions ============================= -- Function: int mpz_root (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP, unsigned long int N) Set ROP to the truncated integer part of the Nth root of OP. Return non-zero if the computation was exact, i.e., if OP is ROP to the Nth power. -- Function: void mpz_rootrem (mpz_t ROOT, mpz_t REM, mpz_t U, unsigned long int N) Set ROOT to the truncated integer part of the Nth root of U. Set REM to the remainder, U-ROOT**N. -- Function: void mpz_sqrt (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP) Set ROP to the truncated integer part of the square root of OP. -- Function: void mpz_sqrtrem (mpz_t ROP1, mpz_t ROP2, mpz_t OP) Set ROP1 to the truncated integer part of the square root of OP, like `mpz_sqrt'. Set ROP2 to the remainder OP-ROP1*ROP1, which will be zero if OP is a perfect square. If ROP1 and ROP2 are the same variable, the results are undefined. -- Function: int mpz_perfect_power_p (mpz_t OP) Return non-zero if OP is a perfect power, i.e., if there exist integers A and B, with B>1, such that OP equals A raised to the power B. Under this definition both 0 and 1 are considered to be perfect powers. Negative values of OP are accepted, but of course can only be odd perfect powers. -- Function: int mpz_perfect_square_p (mpz_t OP) Return non-zero if OP is a perfect square, i.e., if the square root of OP is an integer. Under this definition both 0 and 1 are considered to be perfect squares.  File: gmp.info, Node: Number Theoretic Functions, Next: Integer Comparisons, Prev: Integer Roots, Up: Integer Functions 5.9 Number Theoretic Functions ============================== -- Function: int mpz_probab_prime_p (mpz_t N, int REPS) Determine whether N is prime. Return 2 if N is definitely prime, return 1 if N is probably prime (without being certain), or return 0 if N is definitely composite. This function does some trial divisions, then some Miller-Rabin probabilistic primality tests. REPS controls how many such tests are done, 5 to 10 is a reasonable number, more will reduce the chances of a composite being returned as "probably prime". Miller-Rabin and similar tests can be more properly called compositeness tests. Numbers which fail are known to be composite but those which pass might be prime or might be composite. Only a few composites pass, hence those which pass are considered probably prime. -- Function: void mpz_nextprime (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP) Set ROP to the next prime greater than OP. This function uses a probabilistic algorithm to identify primes. For practical purposes it's adequate, the chance of a composite passing will be extremely small. -- Function: void mpz_gcd (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) Set ROP to the greatest common divisor of OP1 and OP2. The result is always positive even if one or both input operands are negative. -- Function: unsigned long int mpz_gcd_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long int OP2) Compute the greatest common divisor of OP1 and OP2. If ROP is not `NULL', store the result there. If the result is small enough to fit in an `unsigned long int', it is returned. If the result does not fit, 0 is returned, and the result is equal to the argument OP1. Note that the result will always fit if OP2 is non-zero. -- Function: void mpz_gcdext (mpz_t G, mpz_t S, mpz_t T, mpz_t A, mpz_t B) Set G to the greatest common divisor of A and B, and in addition set S and T to coefficients satisfying A*S + B*T = G. The value in G is always positive, even if one or both of A and B are negative. The values in S and T are chosen such that abs(S) <= abs(B) and abs(T) <= abs(A). If T is `NULL' then that value is not computed. -- Function: void mpz_lcm (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) -- Function: void mpz_lcm_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, unsigned long OP2) Set ROP to the least common multiple of OP1 and OP2. ROP is always positive, irrespective of the signs of OP1 and OP2. ROP will be zero if either OP1 or OP2 is zero. -- Function: int mpz_invert (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP1, mpz_t OP2) Compute the inverse of OP1 modulo OP2 and put the result in ROP. If the inverse exists, the return value is non-zero and ROP will satisfy 0 <= ROP < OP2. If an inverse doesn't exist the return value is zero and ROP is undefined. -- Function: int mpz_jacobi (mpz_t A, mpz_t B) Calculate the Jacobi symbol (A/B). This is defined only for B odd. -- Function: int mpz_legendre (mpz_t A, mpz_t P) Calculate the Legendre symbol (A/P). This is defined only for P an odd positive prime, and for such P it's identical to the Jacobi symbol. -- Function: int mpz_kronecker (mpz_t A, mpz_t B) -- Function: int mpz_kronecker_si (mpz_t A, long B) -- Function: int mpz_kronecker_ui (mpz_t A, unsigned long B) -- Function: int mpz_si_kronecker (long A, mpz_t B) -- Function: int mpz_ui_kronecker (unsigned long A, mpz_t B) Calculate the Jacobi symbol (A/B) with the Kronecker extension (a/2)=(2/a) when a odd, or (a/2)=0 when a even. When B is odd the Jacobi symbol and Kronecker symbol are identical, so `mpz_kronecker_ui' etc can be used for mixed precision Jacobi symbols too. For more information see Henri Cohen section 1.4.2 (*note References::), or any number theory textbook. See also the example program `demos/qcn.c' which uses `mpz_kronecker_ui'. -- Function: mp_bitcnt_t mpz_remove (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t OP, mpz_t F) Remove all occurrences of the factor F from OP and store the result in ROP. The return value is how many such occurrences were removed. -- Function: void mpz_fac_ui (mpz_t ROP, unsigned long int OP) Set ROP to OP!, the factorial of OP. -- Function: void mpz_bin_ui (mpz_t ROP, mpz_t N, unsigned long int K) -- Function: void mpz_bin_uiui (mpz_t ROP, unsigned long int N, unsigned long int K) Compute the binomial coefficient N over K and s